Positivist and Interpretivist Research

Positivist and Interpretivist research soft search put forward be defined as, A multi-method in focus, involving an witnessive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative look intoers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in term of the meanings stack bring to them. Qualitative look involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials case study, personal experience, introspective, life story interview, observational, historical, interactional, and optic texts-that describe routine and problematic moments and meaning in individuals lives (Denzin and capital of Nebraska, 1994). Qualitative inquiry emphasizes qualities of entities the processes and meanings that occur natur completelyy (Denzin Lincoln, 2000).Qualitative research methods wee-wee for many years make a significant contribution to management research. In this essay, I critically evaluate Gepharts paper on qualitative research, where he writes pertaining to traditional research methods such as advantageousness and post positivism, interpretive research and critical postmodernististism. In the second part of the essay, I evaluate David Silvermans On Finding and Manufacturing Qualitative information from the book A Very Short, Fairly Interesting and Reasonably Cheap Book active Qualitative interrogation where his methodology merges with the two methods highlighted in Gepharts paper.Gephart in his paper brings to light three main research traditions used in management research. They be positivism and postpositivism, interpretive research and critical post modernism, which have evolved from the behaviourist and cognitive perspectives of qualitative research. In this part of the essay I shall give an overview about the three research traditions and the distinctions between them.Positivist and post plus research traditions explicate from the behaviourist perspective of qualitative research which is based on the experience of consistent sexual congressships. The term positivism was first introduced by Auguste Comte, Our article of belief is unmatched which renders hypocrisy and oppression alike impossible. And it now stands forward as the result of all the efforts of the past, for the regeneration of regularize, which, whether considered individually or socially, is so deeply compromised by the anarchy of the present time. It establishes a primeval principle by which true philosophy and sound polity are brought into correlation a principle which can be felt as well as proved, and which is at once the recognisestone of a system and a basis of government. (Auguste Comte, 1798-1857).A major dogma of logical positivism is its thesis of the unity of experience (Hempel, 1969 Kolakowski, 1968). In its broadest sense, positivism is a position that holds the goal of knowledge. In a positivist view of the world, experience is seen as the way to get at truth , to understand the world well enough to predict and control it. In other words, Positivism assumes an a priori (truth) which is determin competent through methodical, rigorous, careful observation that can be proven through testable and repeatable methodologies.A post-positivist might begin by recognizing that the way scientists think and cut back and the way people think in their everyday life are not distinctly different. It can be defined as, non-foundational approach to human knowledge that rejects the view that knowledge is erected on absolutely secure foundation for there are not such things Post-positivists accept fallibilism (the philosophical doctrine that absolute knowledge is impossible) as an unavoidable fact of life (Phillips Burbules, 2000). It is characterized by a more nuanced belief in an ontologically realist out there veracity that can only be known within some level of probability (Groat Wang, 2002). Additionally, Post-positivists concede that the experimen tal methodologies employed in the natural sciences are often inappropriate for research involving people (Groat Wang, 2002). Within Post-positivist methodologies, the researcher is autonomous from the subject of inquiry, objectivity is important, and the inquirer manipulates and observes in a dispassionate, objective manner. This perspective assumes modified experimental, manipulative methodologies that can include some(prenominal) qualitative and quantitative practices (Denzin Lincoln, 2003). Positivism and post-positivism are al just about similar, the only difference is, Post-positivism takes into account the reprehensions against and weakness of the rigidity of positivism, and now informs much contemporary social science research, including reality-oriented qualitative inquiry (Patton, 1990). informative research tradition arises from the cognitive perspective of qualitative research which is based on shared intelligence and awareness of fourfold social and organisational realities. The foundation assumption for interpretive research is that knowledge is gained or at least filtered, through social constructions such as language, consciousness, and shared meanings (Klein Myers, 1999). In gain to the emphasis on the socially constructed nature of reality, interpretive research acknowledges the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is being explored, and the homeal constraints shaping this process. Interpretive research traditions take the position that humans are social animals that live in societies and as such investigate and interpret lived experience and their inter inhering realities (Bruce H. Rowlands, 2005). Interpretive researchers thus attempt to understand phenomena through accessing the meanings participants assign to them (Orlikowski Baroudi, 1991). Unlike atoms, molecules and electrons, people create and attach their own meanings to the world around them and to the behaviour that they manifest in that world (Schutz, 19 73). Interpretive studies assume that people create and associate their own subjective and inter-subjective meanings as they interact with the world around them.Positivism and Interpretive research can be distinguished as objective versus subjective (Burrell Morgan, 1979), nomothetic versus idiographic (Luthans Davis, 1982), quantitative versus qualitative ( cutting edge Maanen, 1979), outsider versus insider (Evered Louis, 1981), and etic versus emic (Morey Luthans, 1984). full of life postmodernism transcends mere description or reconstructs reality and derives meaning from situations through its critical approach. Critical postmodern system is about the play of differences of micro political movements and impulses of ecology, feminism, multiculturalism, and spirituality without any unifying select for theoretical integration or methodological consistency (Boje, Fitzgibbons Steingard, 1996). Critical postmodern is definable as the nexus of critical theory, post colonialism, critical pedagogy and postmodern theory (Boje, 2001). Critical postmodern theory is a way to get a clearer understanding of the relation between modern and postmodern, and take a Deleuzian expedition into the middle of the hybridity of pre-modern, modern, and postmodern (Boje, 1995). Critical postmodern spatial theory privileges the lived spatialities of left-margined communities as sites of socio-spatial critique. A postmodern identity politics enacts critical postmodern spatial theory by nurturing the development of, and solidarity between, counter publics, which are subaltern community spaces where private spatialities of alienation are brought to public discourse (Allen, 1999).This tradition is focused on how meanings and reality are shaped over time and seeks to uncover and understand the historical evolution of these meanings, practices, contradictions and expose recondite inequalities in societies.The five distinguishing characteristics of the three research traditions (i ) positivism and post positivism (ii) interpretive research and (iii) critical postmodernism, are as follows.First is in terms of the underlying assumptions about reality. Positivism and postpositivism adheres to realism and curse on the assumption of an objective world external to the mind that is reverberateed by scientific entropy and theories interpretive approach proceeds through the protagonism of relativism with investigation proceeding with selective information derived from interlinking circumstanceual realities so that data holds both objective and subjective characters while critical postmodernism adheres to historical realism or the assumption that material or symbolic reality comprised by multidimensional values that crystallizes over time so that the investigation involves the collection of objective and subjective data.Second is in terms of the goal of the investigation. Positivism and post-positivism proceeds with the goal of discovering truths, interpretive re search is in line with the goal of describing and understanding of meanings, and critical postmodernism is control by the goal to uncover hidden interests and contradictions in order to arrive at criticisms that in rung facilitate change.Third is in terms of the tasks intricate in the investigation. Positivism and postpositivism involves the identification, explanation and control of variables directed towards the verification of hypothesis or non-falsified hypotheses, interpretive research applies through producing descriptions of members meaning and definitions of situation in order to have a clear understanding of the manner that reality is constructed, while critical postmodernism involves the task of determining insights from the structures of relationships and historical changes that reveal contradictions.Fourth is in relation to the unit of analysis of the research traditions. Positivism and postpositivism utilises variables as the core unit of analysis, interpretive resea rch focuses on verbal and non verbal actions, while critical postmodernism centres on contradictions, criticism, signs and symbolism as key elements of the research. Variables become the core unit of analyses because of their objective reality. Verbal and non verbal are the units of analyses in interpretive research because of their subjective nature. Conflict, criticism and symbolism are the core unit of analyses of postmodernism because these elements appropriately capture historical realism.Fifth is with regard to the focus of the methods. Positivism and postpositivism involves the discovery of facts and the comparison of these facts with predefined hypothesis or propositions, interpretive research does not predefine dependent or independent variables, does not set out to test hypotheses, but aims to produce an understanding of the social context of the phenomenon and the process whereby the phenomenon influences and is influenced by the social context (Walsham, 1995), while crit ical postmodernism involves the derivation and understanding of historical evolution of meanings, conflicts and inequities evolving through time as the method of data gathering and analyses.Since positivism and post positivism involve objective reality, the methods that apply in these research are those useful in gathering facts while methods able to derive meaning appropriately applies to interpretive research and critical postmodernism because these should be able to capture subjective realities in order to derive meaning.Over the blend in generation there has been a shift in qualitative methods, from a scientist-oriented research, toward a more dynamic representational strategy .Beginning in the late nineteenth century, Antipositivism was perhaps the first movement to challenge the rigid nature of dominant Positivism. Early Antipositivists like Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936) and later, Max Weber (1864-1920), addresses the Positivist failure to apprecia te the fundamental experience of life, and instead favour physical and mental regularities, neglecting the meaningful experience that was really the defining characteristic of human phenomena. Adorno, 1969 (cited in Fuchs. C Sandoval. M., Positivism, Postmodernism, or Critical possible action? A Case discover of Communications Students Understanding of Criticism) stresses that positivism is only oriented on appearance, whereas critical theory stresses the difference between shopping center and appearance. Above all, critical theory, poststructuralism, and postmodernism are effective as critiques of positivism, interrogating taken-for-granted assumptions about the ways in which people write and read science (Stockman, 1984). Such opinions against positivism atomic number 82 to a breakthrough from positivism to other research traditions such as interpretive research and critical postmodernism which meet the needs of current researchers.In contradiction to Gephart, Silverman take s a rather interpretive and critical postmodernist stance when writing his piece about manufactured data and found data. Silverman in his paper uses Sacks insights to condescend the positive things that can be learnt through observations (found data) and the critique view on the use of interview data (manufactured data). He also states that researchers prefer to manufacture data using artificial research settings such as interviews and focus group which use pre-determined research questions. Manufacture of data to event a specified research problem is precisely the method which quantitative or positivist researchers prefer as explained by Gephart. Alternatively, course occurring (found) data arises from being aware that the research situation is not straight forward as eliciting data from interviews. Indeed collecting data through reading, looking, listening, facial expressions, sights, sounds, smells etc are taken into account. It provides a broader perspective of the research pr oblem in hand when compared to manufactured data. info manufactured through interview talk is approached with very different expectations, this can be explained by, The meaning of an answer is not a straightforward matter of external or internal reference, but also depends on the local and broader discursive system in which the phonation is embedded (Wetherell potter around, 1988). Positivist might interpret interviews in a different manner when compared to interpretive and critical postmodernist.Positivist researchers believe that their research methods and data mirror reality. The positivist researcher might strive to discover objectively the truth hidden in the subjects mind, Rather than an interviewee providing prepared/manufactured responses to standard questions designed to be unbiased and neutral, we strive to engage in social construction of a narrative with our participants. In this way we hope to activate the respondents stock of knowledge. (Richie and Rigano, 2001 744, cited in Post-Positivist Approaches To Research Anne B Ryan). We regard ourselves as people who conduct research among other people, learning with them, rather than conducting research on them (Wolcott, 1990). Researchers dont ask themselves is this the truth? Rather, we talk about the issues raised during the interviews, the participants reactions, and our variants of these interwoven ideas. In this context, it seems right to open up the interpretive discussions to our respondents, not for them to confirm or disconfirm them, but to share our thinking and how the ideas might be used. (Richie and Rigano, 2001 752, cited in Post-Positivist Approaches To Research Anne B Ryan)Use of manufactured data in qualitative research might make the respondent bias his result, as give tongue to by Crotty (1998) Leading to the epistemological idea that the very act of observation causes a particle to behave differently. Sacks states that, we can treat what people say as an account which positi ons itself in a particular context. Here the researcher is viewing what people say as an activity awaiting analysis, thus the researchers interpretations play a key role in manufacturing data. Bringing such subjectivity to the fore, backed with quality arguments rather than statistical exactness (Garcia Quek, 1997).Many researchers have criticized the use of manufactured data in qualitative research, which is the positivist view as stated by Gephart and the greater use of naturally occurring data or found data which is the interpretivistic approach. The defunct sociable Scientist Test describes manufactured data as, The test is whether the interaction would have taken place in the form that it did had the researcher not been born or if the researcher had got run over on the way to the university that morning(Potter, 1996). In all research, the choice of data depends on the research problem. Equally, there is no question that all polarities should be investigated particularly wher e, as here, they involve an appeal to nature (Speer 2002). As Kuhn (1964) stated in his publication The structure of Scientific Knowledge, scientists work withinand are constrained byprevailing paradigms while questioning the alleged objectivity and value-free neutrality of scientific discovery.Interpretive approach is synonymous with ethnography. Doing ethnography is doing an interpretation of the behaviour of human subjects in their local settings. Interpretivistic do not reject the concept of a real world out there but presented the reality which mattered most and they try to understand the respondents response in their own terms. Researchers are the measuring instruments and their understanding will derive from personal experience rather than manipulation of variables, as Hirschman(1986) puts it, personally experienced knowledge serves as scientific data. Reality has to be constructed through the researchers interpretation and ability to communicate the respondents reality hence the researcher has to be a part of the research to conduct a successful research. Qualitative researchers can access naturally occurring data by finding everyday features in extraordinary settings, this is an interpretive approach.Naturally occurring data can serve as a wonderful basis for theorizing about things that the researcher would never imagine. What ordinarily happens in the world around us means we can start with things that are not currently imaginable, by showing that they happened (Sacks, 1992). Sanday (1979) states that, empathy and identification with the observed people are needed to go about the understanding held by the human subjects. Geertz says that, the trick is not to get yourself into some inner correspondence with your informants. The researcher uses ethnography and manages to interpret an individual behaviour in such a way that it no longer appears to be absurd but appears rational. A successful interpretation is one which makes clear the meaning originall y present in a confused, fragmented, cloudy form.. what is initially strange, mystifying, puzzling, contradictory (for the researcher) is no longer so, is accounted for (Taylor, 1979).As stated by Potter (2002), naturally occurring data opens up a wide variety of novel issues that are outside the prior expectations embedded in interview questions. In addition to the interpretive approach through the critical approach, the researcher is able to delve into the determination of differential characteristics, nature of conflict, aspects underlying differences and conflicts, and consequences of differences and conflict which help to address the issues that arise in naturally occurring data. With these types of information derived through the application of critical postmodernist tradition, the investigative approach is able to assess data and explain reasons for these differences and conflicts that in turn catalyses the determination of solutions that leads to eventual change.It can be su pported as with the following evidence. Critical postmodern theory is a way to get a clearer understanding of the relation between modern and postmodern, and take a Deleuzian journey into the middle of the hybridity of pre-modern, modern, and postmodern (Boje, 1995). A critical postmodern project can move us beyond exploitation, racism, sexism, and abuse by reframing and restoring organization theory away from its patriarchal lingo in order to reaffirm social justice, equality, democracy, and the wonders of multiplicity (Boje, 1995 1004). In a critical postmodern theory, such as Tamara, we can explore the micro-practices of organizational life, as well as contextualize the stories of the marginal Other, within the workings of a post-industrial go forth and distribution chain addicted to sweatshops, and the cover-stories produced and distributed by the postmodern storytelling organizations that turn out consumer identities and spectacles for mass consumption (Boje, 1995 998-2). On t he plus side, there is always impedance to the forces of global and individual domination and exploitation that stem from the strange hybridity of premodern, modern, and postmodern organizing amalgams. Ultimately, the criticism provides insights into historical events to catalyse change that should be for the betterment of relationships and systems.It can be summarised that good qualitative research is difficult and challenging to undertake. Data manufactured through artificial research settings such as interviews and focus groups restricts the information on hand(predicate) to the researcher and it also leads to biased results since the respondent is aware of the researchers need. The positivist researcher might strive to manufacture data by discovering objectively the truth hidden in the subjects mind while interpretivist tries to collect naturally occurring data by understanding the respondents response in their own terms. Reality has to be constructed through the researchers i nterpretation and ability to communicate the respondents reality hence as Silverman states the researcher has to be a part of the research to conduct a successful research.Thus naturally occurring data (interpretivist) is more suitable for qualitative research than manufactured data (positivist) because,Naturally occurring data does not flood the research setting with the researchers own categories (embedded in questions, probes, stimuli, vignette and so on)It does not put people on the position of disinterested experts on their own and others practices and thoughts.It does not croak the researcher does not leave the researcher to make a range of more or else problematic inferences from the data collection arena to topic as the topic itself is directly studied.It opens a wide variety of novel issues that are outside the prior expectations embedded in, say, interview questions.It is a rich record of peoples living their lives, pursuing goals, managing institutional tasks and so on. (Potter,2002)Ultimately the type of data used in qualitative research depends on the research topic hence researchers prefer to combine and test their observations by asking questions from the research sample.REFERENCESJournal ArticlesAgger.B., 1991. Critical Theory, Poststructuralism, Postmodernism Their sociological Relevance. Annual Review Social, 17, pp.105-31.Allen S. Lee.,1991. Integrating Positivist and Interpretive Approaches to Organizational Research, Organization scholarship, 2(4), pp.342-365.Boje, D. M., 1995. Stories of the Storytelling OrganizationA postmodern analysis of Disney as Tamara-Land. Academy of Management Journal, 38(4), pp.997-1035.Boje, D. M., Fitzgibbons, D. E., Steingard, D. S., 1996. Storytelling at Administrative Science Quarterly Warding off the postmodern barbarians. pp. 60-92.Boje, D. M., 2001c. Tamara Manifesto. Tamara Journal of Critical Postmodern Organization Science (Online). 1, pp.15-24. Available online at http//www.zianet.com/boje /tamaraB oje . D. M., 2001. Carnivalesque Resistance To Global Spectacle A Critical Postmodern Theory Of Public Administration. Administrative Theory Praxis, 23(3), pp.431-458.Evered, Roger. Meryl R. Louis., 1981. Alternative Perspectives in the Organizational Sciences query from the Inside and Inquiry from the Outside. Academy of Management Review, 6(3), pp.385-395.Fischer. F., 1998. Beyond Empiricism Policy Inquiry In Postpositivist Perspective. Studies Journal, 26(1), pp.129-146.Fuchs.C. Sandoval. M., Positivism, Postmodernism, or Critical Theory? A Case Study of Communications Students Understandings of Criticism. Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies, 6(2).Gephart R., 2004. Qualitative Research and the Academy of Management Journal. Academy of Management Journal, 47(4), pp.454-462.Hirschman, E., 1986. Humanistic inquiry in merchandise research philosophy, method, and criteria. 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Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(4), pp.520-526.Walsham, G., 1995. Interpretive Case Studies in IS Research Nature and Method. European Journ al of Information Systems, 4(2), pp.74-81.BOOKSBurrell, Gibson. Gareth, Morgan., 1979. Sociological Paradigms and Organisational Analysis. London HeinemannCrotty, M., 1998. The Foundations of Social Research Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process. London Sage Publications.Denzin, N. Lincoln, Y. S., 1994. Introduction Entering the field of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin Y. W. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research 1-17. guanine Oaks, CA Sage.Denzin. N. K. Lincoln, Y. S., 2000. Introduction The discipline and practice of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin Y. S. Lincoln (Eds), Handbook of qualitative research. 2nd ed. 1-28. Thousand Oaks, CA Sage.Denzin, Norman., Guba Lincoln., 2003. Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions and Emerging Influences in The Landscape of Qualitative Research Theories and Issues. 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The Development Of Womens Football

The Development Of Womens FootballEngland is known for the home of football, however, womens football still fools very little public recognition. Unlike countries much(prenominal) as Norway, Ger many a(prenominal), and the USA, which are considered to be some of the leading womens football nations, Womens football in England receives much lower status, popularity and recognition. This essay will look into the history of womens football, how womens football is open to the media, the relationship amidst womens football, government and economics and finally the impact that womens football has on society today.The first English womens football aggroup, The British Ladies, was founded in 1884. However, the real(a) foundation st 1 for womens football was laid during World War 1. By the end of the 19th century, in that respect was a multitude of new jobs for working menage women who were called up to work in factories and who played in organised teams to raise money for the war effo rt. gumshoe Kerrs ladies went on to be one of the most boffo ladies football teams in the 19th century. Pfister et al (1999) explained that The development of Dick Kerrs ladies exemplifies that the standard of womens football had risen considerably since its early years and players now trained regularly and systematically not simply in order to improve their condition but to a fault to refine their ball skills and practice tactical moves.In 1920, Dick Kerrs ladies were appointed to become Englands national football team, the popularity of womens football continuously progressed and by 1921 there were 150 womens football teams in England. As a result of the ontogenesis popularity of womens football, it was seen as a threat towards the domination of football by men. This led to FA campaigning against womens football. The FA lead false accusations towards the womens bouncy, accusing them of misuse of charity money and hapless financial management as well as having opinions on m edical and moral factors that should prevent women from playing football. The following resolution was adoptedComplaints having been made as to Football being played by women, Council feel impelled to express their strong opinion that the mettlesome is quite unsuitable for female persons and should not be boost (Williamson, 1991).In December 1921 womens football in England was finally banned. They were banned from playing on FA league grounds and any officials, trainers and clubs were suspended for being involved in womens football. Between 1921 and 1972 the womens game was forced underground and the women continued to play without a league structure.As a result of the England mens team winning the world loving cup in 1966 the renaissance of womens football started to begin and on the 1st November 1969, the Womens Football Association of England was founded as the successor of the English Ladies football association. In 1985, the womens England team triumphed in the Italian Little World Cup and then won for a second time in 1988. However in 1991, cod to the rapid harvest-feast of participation, the increased administrative requirements, and the strong tradition of volunteerism, the downfall of the WFA began. In November 1993, the FA merged the WFA. As a result womens football began to improve under the FA. For example, Umbro and Adidas began to supply womens teams with equipment, players started to receive a daily allowance of 15, and the leagues became more structured.In 1993 when the FA in like mannerk over there were approximately eleven thousand registered female footballers. Today, there are over 100,000 registered female footballers. Yet despite this rise, it still lags coffin nail countries such as the United States where there are 7.8 million players. For a country which claims the beautiful game as its heritage, why is it that the US women are more revered to womens football than our own? (Dhaliwal, 2005)One of the main issues with womens footba ll is the lack of media exposure. One of the most influential elements of the citizenry media is Television, however it has generally denied power to women through its exclusionary approach, in particular it has neglected women by its failure to televise womens team sports.In the womens football season 20011-2012, only 5 league games were shown on ESPN and the FA Cup final which was shown on Sky Sports. Controversially the FA cup final which took place on 26th May 2012 between Birmingham City Ladies and Chelsea ladies was cut short as Sky Sports chose to switch from live transmission of that match to the build-up for the League One play-off final. A scheduling blunder by Sky meant that when Birmingham City Ladies scored a late equaliser in extra time to take the match to penalties meant that it would clash with the build up to the Mens League one playoff final. The mens league one play off build up was deemed to be more important that the womens FA cup, which in mens football is on e of the considerablegest competitions in English football. The Liverpool Ladies captain, Vicky Jones (2012) uttered her views questioning Would this guide happened for the Mens FA Cup FinalAnother issue with the media in womens football is the lack of female presenters. Woodhouse et al (2005) maintain that skys live coverage is too important to be given up to female presenters who may fracture the strongly masculinity and technocratic discourses set up by the ex-players and current stars who provide the desktop debates to live matches. Men here are simply assumed to be experts. It was only in 2007 where Jacqui Oatley became the first ever female commentator for the BBC. However, again there was controversy when Dave Basset (2007) a former footballer and manager declared i will be changing channels when Oakleys voice comes on channelise because in order to commentate you must obligate an understanding of the game and tactics, and in order to do that you need to have played the game.In 2011 a similar incident occurred when Richard Keys and Andy Gray had made sexist comments made about female referee Sian Massey. They had later been sacked from sky for these comments.Sexism has unceasingly played a huge part in football in England ,this is because football has always been seen to be a typical mans game. On the other hand in many other countries such as Italy, Sweden and the USA womens football is accepted and football is seen as a national sport that is not male dominated or controlled. Jackie Bass (2012) Regional Club Partnership Manager of football stated Sexism in football is like its the final discrimination act that not only exists but is deemed acceptable to exist.Newspapers- female journalists, how much is published?Currently, the womens football premier league main sponsorship is Tesco, and the main sponsorship for the FA Cup is Eon. The national team receives their championship from primary winding sponsors such as Umbro which is shared across t he senior, under 18 and under 16 teams.As a result on the FA being responsible for the funding of all areas of English football, it is hard to find specific funding on womens football. However, head of the national game Kelly Simmons (2012) statedFA spends approximately six million a year on England, FAWSL pyramid, FA Womens cup and talent development. Sport England receives the funding from the lottery well causes scheme. Approximately two million pounds a year is provided for the centres of excellence, however they have also invested 25 million over four years into grassroots which is for both boys and girls. The FA invests 50m a year into childrens and grassroots and its all boys and girls and therefore impossible to break up out. The Government also gives Football Foundation 10m a year for grassroots facilities. Again this is very difficult to divide out as it mainly goes to big pitch sites and school sites where all men, women, boys and girls play. Although the English FAs fi nancial support for the womens game has increased over the years (from 150,000 in 1993, 310,000 in 1995, 530,000 in 1997, and estimated up to a Million will be funded in 1999), this amount is still one hundred and thirty times less than the FA sends on mens football. (Lopez, 1996)Some womens football teams also receive great support from mens clubs financially, however some clubs are not as supportive offering little help other than with provision of team kit.One of the most supportive clubs is Arsenal FC, they not only provided great financial support but also enabled the womens team to have access to good facilities, the mens training grounds and occasional use of the Emirates stadium. Faye White (2006) recognised the financial commitment from the mens club as having been very good over the years and always improving, which had been a factor in the teams success. On the other hand there are a number of mens professional clubs such as Manchester United and Fulham FC, which have wit hdrawn funding from their respective womens teams.Minister of sport, Hugh Robertson (2006) believed clubs which were in a position to pay high wages and which benefited from substantial funding from sponsorship and broadcasting rights deals had a slice of social responsibility to share some of those proceeds with womens football clubsGovernment initiativesIn October 2012 the FA launched a new initiative for the development of womens football called The Game Changer.This is due to the incredible year of womens football that has driven t a lot of interest into the sport. The GB Womens football team made their way to the quarter finals in the Olympics. in addition to this the England Womens team qualified unbeaten for the 2013 UEFA European Championship Finals in Sweden, with the final two home games broadcast live on cislunar television. Finally, the second season of The FA WSL was completed.FA Chairman David Bernstein said Womens football is the area with the most potential for gro wth in the nations favourite game.The FA will make these key commitments such as Creating an Elite Performance Unit (EPU) and appoint a Head of Elite Development, the EPU will develop the best young players via the talent development way of 31 Centres of Excellence, 29 player development centres and elite performance camps. The game changer will also Deliver a new commercial system for womens football For the first time in FA history there will be a distinct commercial programme for womens football to help the game have a clear identity and become financially more sustainable. The commercial rights for England Women, The FA Womens Cup and The FA WSL will be sold separately from rights for the mens game to entrap a clear identity in a crowded sports marketplace. Finally, more broadcast coverage will be secured and strong commercial partnerships forged to go up the profile of the womens game.Another of The game changers goals are to expand the FA WSL. To do this the FA will introd uce an FA WSL2 in 2014 to enable promotion and relegation, expanding a competition format.Finally the game changer will aim to Grow Participation. FA Chairman David Bernstein (2012) expressed that he wanted womens football to become the second largest team sport (currently fourth behind mens football, cricket and rugby).after mens football by 2018 based on independent Sport England research, with 253,600 women playing football each month .

Capital Punishment Essay - Death Penalty is Neither Cruel Nor Unusual

shoemakers last Penalty is Neither Cruel Nor UnusualA man sits immobile in a steel chair with a metal cap resting on his bald passing play. A priest reads selections from the Bible telling him he will go to nirvana if he confesses his sins to God. The man just smiles as the security guard pulls the switch, and one thousand volts of electricity flows through the mans body. His entire frame shakes in convulsions as his issue bobs up and down with the shock. In a couple of seconds the mans life is over. The priest prays, makes the sign of the cross on his chest, and, turning slowly, walks out the door. Capital punishment has been about for m each years and has spanned m either centuries. Between 1927 and 1963, the U.S. had used capital punishment, or legal execution by lethal injection, electricity, hanging, gas chamber or sac squad, for certain federal offenses. The federal and state death penalty was voted unconstitutional in 1972 by the United States Supreme Court. In 1976 the Supreme Court passed a bill allowing the death penalty in those states that accepted it. Because of a drug-kingpin conspiracy in 1988, the federal death penalty was approved, but had to be consistent to the 1976 ruling. An coach-and-four crime bill was passed in 1994 to improve the federal penalty for about sixty different crimes. Some of those crimes include murder of government officials, murder for hire, any misdemeanor crimes, much(prenominal) as kidnapping or sexual abuse crimes, resulting in death and also some crimes not resulting in death such as the running of a large drug operation (Amsterdam). The great writ, which is Latin for you have the body, lets a federal judge leaven convictions in state courts. Over fifty cases have been reviewed for such things as lack of ... ...Bryan Stevenson. People. November 27, 1995. pp. 71-76. Haag, Ernest van den. Executing Juvenile Murderers Is Just. The dying Penalty Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, CA. Greenhaven Press, Inc. 1991 . pp. 82-85. Klaidman, Daniel. The with child(p) Writ Hit. Newsweek. May 6, 1996. pp. 72. Lewin, Tamar. Punishable By Death Who Decides Who Will Die? Even Within States, It Varies. New York Times . February 23, 1995. SIRS. Pakaluk, Michael. Christians Can Morally Support The Death Penalty. The Death Penalty Opposing Viewpoints. Greenhaven Press, Inc. 1991. pp. 67-73. Steffen, Lloyd. The Death Penalty Is Unjust. The Death Penalty Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, CA. Greenhaven Press, Inc. 1991. pp. 61-66. Sullum, Jacob. The Death Penalty Is Just. The Death Penalty Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, CA. Greenhaven Press, Inc. 1991. pp. 57-60. Capital Punishment canvass - Death Penalty is Neither Cruel Nor UnusualDeath Penalty is Neither Cruel Nor UnusualA man sits immobile in a steel chair with a metal cap resting on his bald head. A priest reads selections from the Bible telling him he will go to nirvana if he confesses his sins to God. The man just smiles as the secur ity guard pulls the switch, and one thousand volts of electricity flows through the mans body. His entire frame shakes in convulsions as his head bobs up and down with the shock. In a couple of seconds the mans life is over. The priest prays, makes the sign of the cross on his chest, and, turning slowly, walks out the door. Capital punishment has been almost for many years and has spanned many centuries. Between 1927 and 1963, the U.S. had used capital punishment, or legal execution by lethal injection, electricity, hanging, gas chamber or open fire squad, for certain federal offenses. The federal and state death penalty was voted unconstitutional in 1972 by the United States Supreme Court. In 1976 the Supreme Court passed a bill allowing the death penalty in those states that accepted it. Because of a drug-kingpin conspiracy in 1988, the federal death penalty was approved, but had to be consistent to the 1976 ruling. An comprehensive crime bill was passed in 1994 to improve the federal penalty for about sixty different crimes. Some of those crimes include murder of government officials, murder for hire, any misdemeanor crimes, such as kidnapping or sexual abuse crimes, resulting in death and also some crimes not resulting in death such as the running of a large drug operation (Amsterdam). The great writ, which is Latin for you have the body, lets a federal judge dig into convictions in state courts. Over fifty cases have been reviewed for such things as lack of ... ...Bryan Stevenson. People. November 27, 1995. pp. 71-76. Haag, Ernest van den. Executing Juvenile Murderers Is Just. The Death Penalty Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, CA. Greenhaven Press, Inc. 1991. pp. 82-85. Klaidman, Daniel. The spectacular Writ Hit. Newsweek. May 6, 1996. pp. 72. Lewin, Tamar. Punishable By Death Who Decides Who Will Die? Even Within States, It Varies. New York Times . February 23, 1995. SIRS. Pakaluk, Michael. Christians Can Morally Support The Death Penalty. The De ath Penalty Opposing Viewpoints. Greenhaven Press, Inc. 1991. pp. 67-73. Steffen, Lloyd. The Death Penalty Is Unjust. The Death Penalty Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, CA. Greenhaven Press, Inc. 1991. pp. 61-66. Sullum, Jacob. The Death Penalty Is Just. The Death Penalty Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, CA. Greenhaven Press, Inc. 1991. pp. 57-60.

Chromatography of Dyes :: Chromatography Experiments Dye Essays

Chromatography of DyesAn extremely common technique by using two chemicals and filter make-up can give you sufficient information. A well-done Chromatography of dyes will provide you with enough data to determine if a liquid mixture is heterogeneous or homogenous . In a learning activity you can depart and possibly identify food dyes in some subscribes mixes and food colors. The effect of effect polarity or the ability to separate and elute compounds will also be demonstrated. In this investigate you will need to use the equation Xcm/Acm=RF value. The length of A, is the length of the longest line of the food dye or food coloring. The Length of X is the length of all the other variables. In the experiment the lengths will be measured in Centimeters.Experimental ProcedureYou will need to obtain a piece of standard filter authorship somewhat 10*15 cm. Use a pencil to draw a line parallel to one of the longer edges, about 1 cm from the edge. put one over 10 dashes on the pencil line, be sure to have them evenly distributed. At this point you will spot each of the 5 standards on separate dashes. Be sure to write down which liquid is at which dash. Then choose two food colors and two drink mixes, and spot them on the remaining four dashes. Curl the filter paper into a cylinder, make sure colors out, and staple the edges together. Do not allow the edges of the filter paper to overlap. Add approximately 10 ml of a 73 isopropanolwater mixture to your 600 mL beaker, then carefully place the chromatogram into the beaker the dingy muscae volitantes must be higher than the solvent. Be sure to cover the beaker, remove, lay out to dry then measure when the solvent is 1 to 2 cm from the top. Repeat all the above steps but use 0.1% NaCl in the place of the 73 isopropanol. By comparing the colors of the spots in the standards and the unknowns, and the distances the spots moved, you should be able to tell what compounds are present in the food colors and drink mixes. S ome of the food colors and drink mixes may contain only one dye, and some may contain more than one.

affirmative action :: essays research papers

Websters New World Dictionary definition of affirmative run is a policy or program for correcting the effects of discrimination in the employment or education of members of certain groups. President Lyndon B. Johnson issued the Executive Order 11246 requiring federal contractors to use affirmative action to increase the number of minorities that are employed. He also created the Office or Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP) which set out to find the exact gist of Affirmative Action (Woods). Affirmative action is supposed to create ways for people to experience equal opportunities in the work place and for students wanting to go to college. However, while creating equal opportunities for some, it discriminated against others.With the passing of the Civil Rights Act in 1964, galore(postnominal) corporations created new ways of going around affirmative action without creating a separate of attention. Some companies created programs that would make it harder for minorities to get . matchless company, Duke Power Company of North Carolina, created a rule where in order to be considered for a promotion, you had to have been a high school graduate and pass 2 tests that were administered. These qualifications were mainly for the labor divisions which consisted of mainly black men. The problem being at the time only 12% of the black in North Carolina had passed high school, meaning they would not be eligible for the promotions. In 1961 it was taken to the Supreme Court and the 9 Justices unanimously hold that this was a form a discrimination against blacks (Woods). Besides employees, students applying for college were being affected greatly. The affirmative action programs were becoming the basis for admission to college. This was creating unfair advantages of minorities over others. One man who felt this way was Allan Burke. Burke a 35 year old man decided to attend medical school. He applied to many schools, but was turned down because of his age. One s chool he applied at was University of California at Davis. The application contained a section that read, Applicants from economically and educationally disadvantaged backgrounds are evaluated by a special subcommittee of the admissions committee. Whoever checked this was evaluated by a special task force which was created to bring in more nonage students.

Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury Essay -- Literature Fahrenheit 451 Book

Fahrenheit 451There appears to be some writing on the note ... Fahrenheit 451, by Ray Bradbury, is a science fiction novel that discusses and shows the life of a very controlled society. The society is not allowed to read books and is penalise for doing so. The books argon burned at 451 degrees Fahrenheit, which is the temperature it takes book paper to burn (Bradbury 1). Although society today isnt like that as far as books be concerned, the author quiet down shows some trends that are occurring today. Some of the characters in the novel are similar to people in todays society in the way they act towards societys views. The society in Fahrenheit 451 is similar to the society in Those Who Walk Away From Omelas, a story by Ursula LeGuin.Although the novel and the short story apply a in all different plot and narrative, the themes and moral issues are similar. The society in the novel is a very controlled society as far as values and beliefs are concerned. The government has set r ules and regulations that books are not allowed and will be burned if they are being read or seen by anybody. Instead of the send away discussion section putting out fires, they are actually the ones setting the books on fire. The beliefs are forced into peoples heads by television or the radio that books are bad and should never be read. Most of the people in this society listen to whatever the government tells them and believe that books are not good and will alarm the fire department if anyone is going against the rules. The people of this society are stuck in this matrix, or belief system, and they have no choice to get out, similar to the movie The Matrix. They have to obey all the rules of the matrix perfectly or else they will be the outcast an... ... todays society are similar to some of the characters in the novel. Fahrenheit 451 cannister also be related to some stories in literature because of the issues and themes it discusses. Both todays society and the society in the novel have certain rules that the people in the matrices are supposed to follow but the rules in the novel are less common and their punishments tend to be stranger and harsher. Whether or not these rules and beliefs are morally right or fair is a different subject, however, it doesnt seem fair to make the laws so strict without any flexibility. When doing this, there tends to be more rebellion, which is seen in the novel Fahrenheit 451. Works Cited Bradbury, Ray. Fahrenheit 451. New York Ballantine Books, 1953 Kennedy, X. J., Dana Gioia. Literature An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Eight Edition. New York Longman, 2002

Acquisition Strategies in DoD Procurements :: essays research papers

General ConsiderationsEach PM must develop and document an acquisition strategy to guide program execution from initiation done reprocurement of systems, subsystems, components, spares, and services beyond the initial production contract award and during post-production support. The acquisition strategy evolves through an iterative process and becomes increasingly more definitive in describing the relationship of the essential elements of a program. A primary goal of the strategy is to minimize the time and cost it takes, consistent with common sense and sound craft practices, to satisfy identified, validated needs, and to maximize affordability throughout a programs useful life cycle.In developing the acquisition strategy, the PM considers all policy guidance contained in the acquisition strategy portion on DoD 5000.2R. In documenting the acquisition strategy, the PM provides a complete picture of the strategy for the purpose makers who will be asked to coordinate on or approve the strategy document. The PM ensures the document satisfies the necessarys of DoD 5000.2R for the acquisition strategy to identify, address, describe, summarize, or otherwise document specific, major aspects or isues of the program or strategy.The PM develops the acquisition strategy in preparation initiation, prior to the program initiation decision, and updates it prior to all major program decision points or whenever the approved acquisition strategy changes or as the system approach and program elements become better prepared. The PM engages the Working Level combine Product Team (WIPT) and Operational Test Agency (OTA) in the development of the acquisition strategy, and obtains concurrence of the Program decision maker Officer and Component Acquisition Executive , as appropriate.The Milestone Decision Authority approves the acquisition strategy prior to the release of the formal solicitation. Approval usually precedes each decision point, except at program initiation, when the acquisition strategy usually is approved as part of the milestone decision review.REQUIREMENTSThe acquisition strategy provides a summary description of the requirement the acquisition is intended to satisfy. The summary highlights aspects of the requirement (1) driven by family-of-systems or mission area requirements for interoperability, and (2) that reflect dependency on planned capability cosmos achieved by other programs. The summary also states whether the requirement is structured to achieve full capability in time-phased increments or in a single step. For time-phased requirements, define the block about to be undertaken, as well as subsequent blocks.The acquisition strategy identifies approved source documents constituting the authoritative definition of the requirement such(prenominal) as the Operational Requirements Document (ORD), Capstone Requirements Document (CRD), and Acquisition Program Baseline (APB).