This is an assignment about how companies that were once successful, Essay

This is an assignment about how companies that were once successful, but were undone by disruptive technologies and rising competition, can come back - Essay ExampleNokia must implement the latest technologies to enter the emerging competition. It must change its focus from handset to software, as the industry has changed itself from handset-focused to software-focused system (Brown, para.3). Nokia should consider leaving the old fashioned Symbian software, and should focus on employ the new Android software, which other big companies are using and are giving at low prices. For example, Samsung introduced Galaxy pocket starting as low as $100. This beat Nokia drastically. Nokia must also correct it strategical decisions, and should focus on what consumers want through leaving its traditional softwares and technologies and embracing the new ones. It should also introduce new hardware designs which are visually appealing, with more efficient cameras. Nokia should also decide whethe r it wants to be a smartphone platform provider company, like Apple, or a device builder company, like HTC and Motorolla. Nokia used a mix of both strategies, and this became the reason for its failure. It acted like Apple, but also incorporated its old traditional style of hardware, which was a big mistake in its strategic planning. Hence, for Nokia to regain its market dominance that it has been enjoying in the past, it should focus on correcting its strategies, and should modify itself in order to come at par with the modern

What are the effects of Herb drug interactions Essay

What are the effects of Herb drug interactions - Essay ExampleTwenty articles were considered, majority of which discussed St. Johns wort. Among the articles, the mechanism of interaction was pharmacokinetic in nature. The cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes and the P-glycoprotein transporter were induced by the herbs active components. Since these proteins are important in the metabolism of majority of drugs, interfering with their activity by the herbs results to an increased or decreased uptake of drugs. Since herb-drug interaction is highly likely, government health, and food and drugs sectors should start regulating herb tea products, and health care practitioners should be aware of such interactions so that they could advise their patients about(predicate) it.Herbal medicines are plants and its parts that are used for their scent, flavor, and/or therapeutic purposes. They contain varying amounts of active components that influence their beneficial properties. The forage and Drug Administration classify them as dietary supplements hence, no regulations are placed upon the products (Bressler, 2005).Herbal medication use has been steadily increasing globally. In the linked States (US), the use of self-prescribed medication increased from 2.5% in 1990 to 12% in 1997, while patients consulting herbal medicine practitioners increased form 10.2% to 15.1%. Reasons for using herbal products include 1) readiness and safety outlook, 2) accessibility since it is a non-prescription drug, 3) idea that it is organic, 4) desperation and dissatisfaction with conventional drugs, and 5) lower cost (Bressler, 2005). Despite using herbal products, only half of the users notify their doctors about it (Foti, wahlstrom, & Wienkers, 2006).With the growing number of users of herbal products despite the non-regulation by the Food and Drug Administration, a lot of health institutions are bothered of the possible effects of herbal products on users, especially on herb-drug interactio n.

Website Design for Interactive Environment Coursework - 1

Website Design for Interactive Environment - Coursework ExampleIn its purest form, the 100% winding device is an extension of the user not the other way round, extension of the device.Globally, mobile devices outnumber desktop computers 20-1. Given that, not every mobile device- especially phones- has the functionality to access the internet, however the turnover frequence for mobile devices is higher than that of the desktop devices. Mobile devices have brought a revolutionary omnipresence and it is vital to understand the meaning of the term mobile web. at that place are cases that call for the inclusion of protocols and standards such as SMTP, SMS, and IM in the definition of this term but this report adapts Colbornes definition as the subset of HTTP content that has been optimized for and is reachable with a mobile device.Mobile web content is therefore less detailed, making it lighter than desktop web, due to the technical limitations posed by the technology. When victimisa tion a desktop workstation to access the web, we connect using Ethernet over a leased line that has a rich infrastructure. If we opted to use Wi-Fi in place of the Ethernet, even up on the same workstation at home, it comes with new complications into the equation.A close examination of the underlying technology that supports mobile web reveals the technical hurdles that a mobile device overcomes while connecting to the exact same data reservoir as the workstation or notebook PC. The mobile device connects over a less spicy network whether its the faster and newer EDGE or G3 connection or slower and older GPRS. Once the connection has been made, it must be held through a call transfer from multiple cell-towers as the user traverses the coverage connection matrix of a given carrier. This makes the mobile devices extremely limited in basis of available bandwidth.Screen size is the most obvious difference a computer and mobile device. For years, the minimum screen resolution designe d has been increasing. Similarly,

Pakistan and Policy Essay Example for Free

Pakistan and Policy Essay depicted object integration is ace in diversity. It means a opinion of oneness. It implies social, political, economic, linguistic and cultural unity. It is the fetchment of a mental climate that would help re movements in terms of oneness, irrespective of the region, language or religion of the people concerned. It means a heaven of freedom where the world has not been divided into fragments by narrow domestic wells. It is based on feeling of oneness, common ideals of life and a common code of behavior. It implies confidence in nations future, deep sense of values and obligation of citizenship, mutual understanding and respect for the conclusion of different sections of the nation.Need for issue IntegrationNational integration is the feeling that binds the citizens of a outlandish. Its aim is to put individuals best efforts for the optimum growth, prosperity and welfare of the country as a whole. It does away with inter-state, inter-linguistic, i nter-religious and inter-cultural differences. It promotes a spirit of tolerance and respect for the view-point of other cultural groups. To Kanungo, Every country at every time ask guinea pig integration but India needs it the most. Indias passing through a critical period these days. The integrity of India is in danger. Therefore Indians will have to act carefully. In India national integration is needed due to following reasonsThreat of Foreign AggressionNational integration is vital for Indias survival especially at a time when the country is under the threat of foreign aggression and internally the people are divided on the basis of castes, religions, regions, communities, languages and Races For the Development of National CharacterNational integration is an of the essence(p) element for the development of national character. These days there is lack of national character. Corruption is increasing day-by-day. We are sacrificing national interests for the sake of money. Nati onal character can be formed only when we have the feeling of national integration.For Success of DemocracyIndia is a democratic country. National integration is an essential pre-requisite for the success of our democracy. It is a basic need for the success of democracy otherwise, the fissiparous tendencies in the country may lead to serious consequences.For potpourriNational unity is essential for any country at any time. There is unity in diversity in India but now unity is in danger. Therefore, national unity is essential in order to maintain the eternal value of unity in diversity.For PeaceNational integration is essential for keeping peace at national and international level. Modern age is the age of science. It has changed the whole world in a family. Every nation is parasitical on one another. Therefore, scientific achievement should be used for constructive work in order to provide peace to humanity. This feeling can develop only when we have the thought of national integr ation.

Sustainable Coffee Market Essay Example for Free

Sustainable Coffee Market Essay1.1 Company overviewOur society CoffeeTime go away be established in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. This is due to the fact that the highest proportion of deep brown consumption within Europe is in the S hatfuldinavian countries, followed by the Netherlands, Belgium and capital of Luxembourg it would on that pointfore be efficient to establish the company in Rotterdam. This wholeows for a relatively central base with strong ties to other European countries to import/ export and transport the hot chocolate.As a company we would like to do business as sustainably and fairly as possible. Due to fair care, we would like to jock our suppliers by giving them the opportunity to produce at reasonable costs and in addition help ourselves by selling the drinking chocolate at reasonable prices. Fair cover to a fault includes an educating sytem for our employees and tribe related to the company, such as coffee farmers and even consumers. This system i s utilise to prove that h starst and good pure tone products do not learn to be expensive. With this in mind there it can create a positive effect in our products which will be of arrive at to everyone.The coffee will be produced and exported from Brazil to the Netherlands. Brazil was chosen due to the fact it is one of the best places in the world where coffeebeans are produced in relatively surroundings all toldy pally circumstances. Indonesia, India, Kenia, Liberia and Mexico were further alter inherings for CoffeeTime. However Brazil was chosen as it is single-handedly responsible for about a third of all the coffee in the world, as it is worlds largest coffee producer.Furthermore, there is already a Fairtrade policy applied in that area of South America by many companies, which is still ongoing and can be of benefit for the objectives of our own company. Another reason why it is attractive to do business in Brazil, is because of the logistics. Brazil has the largest port of all South America, named Port of Santos. From there on the coffee can be shipped easily to the biggest port in Europe, situated in Rotterdam where CoffeeTime have decided to establish the company. This can be seen as an advantage for both countries due to having innovation hubs.CoffeeTime wants to produce and sell the most popular coffee known on the target trade The Arabica and Robusta. However, each one of those beans can be used to provide divergent flavours of coffee, depending on the several techniques that are used for making coffee.1.2 Mission and vision1.2.1 MissionThroughout all of our business activities we want to ensure honest dealing with customers and suppliers while offering impartial advice to be play along the best sustainable Coffee chain. We want to use our market position of CoffeeTime to benefit our customers by offering a world class coffee experience at an affordable price.1.2.2 VisionTreating eachother fairly can help maintaining a good relationship. Cof feeTime believes in creating an alternative way of helping the world right now and always in the future, by doing fair business from farmer to consumer.1.3 Corporate ObjectivesThe objectives which we stand for are related to our mission and vision as well as to benefit all stakeholders, by providing a sustainable coffee market, now and in the future Become a leading coffee brand in order to change the market and influence Non- Fair trade coffee multinationals to go produce fairly. Focussing on improving the environmental, social and economic conditions, as well as protecting and improving the natural environment and insuring the labour rights and health of local communities. Branding CoffeeTime as a sustainable essential, Fair trade coffee brand on the market.1.4 Keys to SuccessCoffeeTime has to realise that succes can only be achieved by being the best in what you do. After all, coffee is a resource intensive industry. It takes an incredible amount of energy to produce, transpo rt, roast, demo and brew coffee. Committed to preventing an ecological footprint, CoffeeTime will continuously strive to find new ways to restrict the impact on the environment, from production to consumption.Therefore it is of topmost importance for CoffeeTime to invest in the following Provide an education for the farmers to help them at produce the coffee in a more optimised way. To have and economise a fair price for the coffee for everyone. To keep providing the best quality coffee. Make sure that every aspect of the product is produced in an eco-friendly way. For example, the packaging should be recycled so it can be reused wherever possible. To have good transportation by sea with providing the least harm to the enivronment due to fuel of the ship etc. Chapter 2 Product and services2.1 Product and service descriptionCoffeeTime will import from Brazil the finest selection of Arabica beans. In simple terms this means Arabica is well-bred in the shade and Robusta is not. Th e culture of the Robusta beans are a dispensation in the culture of the traditional coffee in which coffee is cultivated under the cover of the native rain forest trees. In the 70s, a system of new farm was promoted but the result was that weve seen shaved forests and coffee trees planted in dense rows. These short-term farms of monoculture produced more coffee, but it had a add consequences for the environment, with soil depletion, accelerated erosion and pollution of streams.From here out CoffeeTime will produce a number of different flavours, such as extra strong, strong, regular, decaf etc. Producers are forced not to overuse pesticides or insecticides. In fact, 70% of Fair Trade products come from organic agriculture. This approach to sustainable development is supported by the explicit prohibition of the use of GMOs in products. Part of the price paid by the closing customer represents a premium (between 5 and 10% of the price paid by the consumer). The latter is used collec tively for social projects of various natures that benefit not only small farmers but also their families and the environment. The cooperative may decide to invest in a training program on organic farming, pretend a school or hospital, to restore a drive or set up a transport service.2.2 Competitive ComparisonThe four study roasters Kraft, Nestl, Procter Gamble and Sara lee(prenominal) have little reflected this decline but profit margins remain high Nestl makes a margin estimated at 26% of the instant coffee. The benefits of Sara Lees coffee are estimated at almost 17%, which represents a very high figure compared to other brands of food and drinks.2.3 Sales LiteratureIf people are sensitive to the approach and initiative, they will adhere to it quite naturally. The Sales aim is to target the niche market and to propose to our clients a wider offer which also corresponds to both modes of consumption in different social classes. additively, by selling our products we will not only provide a flavoursome product, but also inform customers about the product itself and how it is made. In Brazil, the production of coffee will not harm the environment ,(organic, wild harvest, farming) and it is important for our customers to know this . This method will therefore allow the customers of CoffeeTime to be involved in the process and feel valued as a consequence. The import of coffee from Brazil will be done in the most direct way possible to avoid costly middlemen, allowing to better pay artisans and producers.2.4 Sourcing and fulfilmentPart of the price paid by the final customer represents a premium (between 5 and 10% of the price paid by the consumer). The latter is used collectively for social projects of various natures that benefit not only small farmers but also their families and the environment. The cooperative may decide to invest in a training program on organic farming, build a school or hospital, to restore a drive or set up a transport service.2.5 T echnologyThe technology used by the company will include the use of partially automated selecting machines which will allow for increased production capacity with a lower machine-to-operator. Additional storage capabilities will decrease shipping charges and will reduce the need for permanent shipping employees. High-technology information system upgrades will improve all aspects of business, particularly inventory control, tracking of shipments, and communication with clients in import and export countries.2.6 Future Products and ServicesIn the future CoffeeTime will develop and produce a number of different types and flavours of coffee. In addition to Arabica and Robusta, we will also import from Liberia the Liberica coffee. The Coffee Liberica tree grows up to 9 metres in height, producing larger cherries than those found on genus Coffea Arabica trees. This coffee was brought to Indonesia to replace the Arabica trees killed by the coffee rust disease at the end of the 19th centu ry. It can still be found in split of Central and East Java today.The Liberica coffee will also be produced in different strengths and varieties of coffee.Chapter 3 Market Analysis Summary3.1 Market questionAccording to the Daily Dutch News, the Netherlands is one of the countries with the highest coffee consumption in the world. The Dutch are also world leader in sustainable coffee drinking. About half of the consumed coffee is sustainable. On the average the Dutch drink almost 150 litres of coffee per year and about three cups a day. The brand coffee shop market in the Netherlands saw a growth of 27 per cent in outlet numbers in October 2011. The market forecasts a growth of 13 per cent per annum until 2014. We see a huge advantage in the Dutch coffee market. There is a huge demand for our sustainable coffee and CoffeeTime would like to satisfy this need. However, there are a number of competitors in the market such as the Dutch market leader Douwe Egberts.12 3.2 Market targetsA s a company who sells coffee, the main target audience of CoffeeTime are coffee consumers and consumers of warm drinks. Considering that coffee is not suitable for children, our target base consists from young adults (age 18) to the elderly (everyone above 18). There are many under aged Dutch citizens who also drink coffee, but as coffee is actually meant for adults it will be also treated and promoted by our company as such. Coffee is a product which is drunk by all genders and classes and in all work fields. In fact, the majority of our target group drinks coffee during work. Most consumers still buy their coffee in supermarkets, therefore is it important that our coffee is on hand(predicate) in supermarkets such as Albert Hein, Plus, C1000 and Bas van der Heiden.3 3.3 Environmental/ industry analysisWhen sustainable coffee was introduced, the average consumer had a vague notion that the quality of sustainable products was acceptable. When companies started to offer it the Dutc h consumers went along with the choice of the companies, rewarding them by remaining faithful to their brand.In recent years, the sustainable coffee market portion in the Netherlands has risen rapidly. Nearly half of the consumed coffee in the Netherlands is produced in a sustainable way.According to the report Zuivere Koffie (Pure Coffee) from Oxfam Novib, 45% of all coffee which is consumed by the Dutch people is sustainably produced. 40% of all coffee in the Netherlands is UTZ advised.2Sustainability is important in the Dutch coffee market. Many players of the sector, roasters, supermarkets, but also NGOs and the Dutch disposal have been long working together on raising consumer awareness and increasing the share of sustainably produced coffee.The Royal Netherlands Coffee and Tea Association (KNVKT) decided to come about a collective boost to move towards sustainability. They are doing this by consolidating their commitment in a Declaration of Intent. The Dutch Ministry of Ec onomic Affairs and Agriculture, several semi-governmental platforms, certifiers, sustainability initiatives and NGOs including UTZ CERTIFIED do support this. It is expected that three quarters of the Dutch coffee supply will be sustainable by 2015. 3

Data Manipulation Essay Example for Free

Data Manipulation EssayThe prorogues undeniable in the agreement will be Customer, Products, module and salary. The individual fields in each give in will be as followsCUSTOMER (CustomerID, Surname, FirstName and customer address)PRODUCTS (ProductID, Title, Description, Type and Amount)stave ( moduleID, Name, address and contact number)STAFF SALARY (wages per hour, hours per day and age per week) in that location will be devil topics produced. To produce a report for the ingatherings purchased a query will be place to combine the selective in trackation from the customer add-in and the increase table. The drug user will be able to specify the products bought by a customer with the entire number calculated to give the customer benefits of getting more offers.The second report will print the amount of salary each staff earns per hour, hours/day and days/week. The user is asked to enter the StaffID and name to enter its informationbase.OutputThe two reports should b e able to be viewed on screen with an option of printing it as well. The product purchased report should be printed so that they go off give some discounts on particular customers who shop a lot at the store. The staff salary report should also be printed before any meetings so that they can decide on who to get paid more and who shouldnt.Backup / Security StrategyThe main(prenominal) computer that has all told the data needed should be backed up on a CD every week or even when a large amount of data has been input to the system. This CD should be kept away the main computer incase of a fire, theft or flood.There should be password security on the system so that people cannot hack into it. approach has a password protection before entering the data so that no one can hack into it.Part ThreeInitial DesignsForm DesignThere will be 4 forms for the data entry.Frm CustomerThis form will be used for entering customer items. My initial design is shown belowFrm ProductThis form is used to enter all the products available at the store and the prices of each product.Frm StaffThis form will be used to enter the staff details.Frm SalaryThis form will be used to enter the salary of each staff working in the store.Report DesignThere will be 2 reports. These can be either printed or viewed on screen.Report customer listThis report will come from a query, which combines data the customer table and the product table. The user will be able to enter the Customer name to enter the report for the customer reportThis initial design is shown belowReport Staff SalaryThis report will show how a staff details and how much they earn and how are they rated between 1 to 5 stars for working. Mr. Smith can rate this every week.Menu DesignThe menu structure for this system will look like thisUser Feedback on Initial designsThe initial designs were shown to the omnibus of the store for his feedback and approval. Mr. Smith had the following comments and suggestions I have looked at your designs very carefully and they appear to be useful for me and I did however think of 1 or 2 changes that could perhaps change1) The product sheaths should include which category it is in such as racing, shooting. It would also be easier and helpful if everytime you dont have to type in what category it is in.2) Can the 2 reports be printed all together with a click of a button because it can be time go through3) Can you also do something that can calculate the amount of the products and salary for the staffFinal DesignTable designFour tables are required in this system. They are related as followsThe tables are defined as followsForm DesignThe form designs were amended in accordance with Mr. Smiths suggestions and final designs are shown below. There is a combo box added for the category of the product, which can be easier to select the category instead typing it all the time.Query DesignI will need to create 2 different queries. These will form the sources for my reports.QryCus tomerlistThis query will combine data from 2 tables. Using the customer table and product table. It will ask the user to give the customer name. This will past be asked to find out the customer details or the product details.For e.g. Enter Customer name QryStaffSalaryThis query will combine from the two tables, which are the staff table and the salary table. It will ask the user to enter the staff name to see the list of that particular staff detailFor example enter staff name ImplementationWe will be using Ms Access to make the system needed. I will show in steps how to create this type of a system.First readable Ms Access then you will see promptly the very(prenominal) way I need to enter 30 customer listat once we can type the detail of 30 customers without entering the product IDWith the same way I also need to create the product table. subsequently creating it the design looks like thisNow I need to enter the details of the productsNow we k in a flash the product ID so then I will need to add them in the customer table which does not need to be in an order because a customer may want something else.Now we need to create the relationship between these two table.Like these tables I created I will need to create another 2 more. After creating the table page will look like thisAfter creating the staff tables I now need to create the details of them.Now for the staff salary table I need to enter the detailsNow I need to create the relationship between the Staff and the Staff Salary the same way as I did for Customer an Product. So open the relationship windowNow as I have created the relationship between the staff and staff salary when I will open their table it will showAfter creating the tables I now need to create 2 query.Now I need to create a edict for which the system can calculate the total amount of the product from the quantity boughtNow for calculating the VAT on these products I will doNow I need to calculate the bill amount, which is, Amount a dds the VAT.To check if these formulas work I will now test the systemAfter seeing the amount formula working I will now need to save the work and so I willThis is how it will look like when it closes the queryFor the same way I need to create another query, which relates with staff salary and after it has been done it will look like thisNow that Tables and Querys are end I now need to create forms.Now need to align these in orderNow I need to create title for the form . so I need to open the toolbox.It will look like this when I open the toolboxthen where it says Aa click on it and make a box on the formNow I need to type in the title name.Now I have to organize the cheek and the font sizeNow I need to create command buttons for the system.After creating the commands I now need to create a the background colournow I need to save this formFor the same way I will create another 4 forms and after I created it, it looks likeNow I need to create reportsNow finally I need to create a main Menu, which indicate the user to use the system easily. Main Menu will also be create in the Form

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Engineering Essay

vantages And Disadvantages Of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Engineering EssaySolid oxide discharge cells (SOFCs) ar a class of device which make conversion of electrochemical force out to electricity with negligible pollution1. SOFCs have two major configurations flat two-dimensional and tubular and the SOFCs system consists of a galvanic pile that is made of many unit cells. Each unit cell is represent of two porous electrodes, a unhurt ceramic electrolyte and interconnects. Unlike otherwise fuel cells, the SOFCs demeanor oxygen ions from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte, and hydrogen or carbon monoxide reacts with the oxygen ions in the anode2. The materials of anode and cathode have different requirements the anode should survive a very reducing graduate(prenominal) temperature environment whilst the cathode has to survive a very oxidising high temperature environment3.Among all the important fuel cells under development, the solid oxide fuel cells operate at the highest operating temperature, typically between 600 and 10004. So the SOFCs has also been called the third-generation fuel cell technology because it was expected to be put into performance astray after the commercialisation of Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) (the first generation) and Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) (the second generation)2. The solid oxide fuel cell is composed of all solid components with the electrolyte acting as an oxide ion conductor and operating at high temperature (1000) in order to ensure adequate noodle and electronic conductivity for the cell components5.1.1.1 SOFC Advantages and DisadvantagesSOFCs have a offspring of advantages due to their solid materials and high operating temperature.Since all the components argon solid, as a result, there is no need for electrolyte loss maintenance and also electrode corrosion is eliminated6.Since SOFCs argon operated at high temperature, expensive catalysts such as platinum or ruthenium are totally avoided2, 6.Also because of high-temperature operation, the SOFC has a bring out ability to tolerate the presence of impurities as a result of life increasing6.Costs are reduced for privileged reforming of natural gas6.Due to high-quality waste heat for cogeneration applications and low energizing losses, the efficiency for electricity production is greater than 50and even possible to reach 652, 6.Releasing negligible pollution is also a commendable reason why SOFCs are popular today5.However, there are also some disadvantages in existence for deteriorating the performance of SOFCs.SOFCs operate high temperature, so the materials utilize as components are thermally challenged5.The relatively high cost and complex fabrication are also significant problems that need to be solved6.1.1.2 SOFC ApplicationsDue to the advantages mentioned above, SOFCs are being considered for a wide range of applications, such as working as actor systems for trains, ships and vehicles supplying galvan ising power for residential or industrial utility2, 7.1.1.3 SOFC Components and ConfigurationsA SOFC system is composed of fuel cell stacks, which consist of many unit cells. there are two major configurations, tubular and platelike, being pursued, described generally as follows.Tubular unit cell is shown in Figure 18, 9. The schematic illustrates the fit current flow direction and components.According to X. Li2, due to easy stacking consideration, recently more and more tubular cells have the structure of cathode inside and anode outside the electrolyte layer.The planar unit cell has a flat structure with a bipolar arrangement, as shown in Figure 210.Seung-Bok Lee at el.11 reported that since the more potent current collection by planner interconnects, planar SOFCs have superiority in power density. On the contrary, the thermal and mechanical properties of tubular SOFCs are better than that of planner SOFCs.Table 12 lists a comparison of the two different SOFC cell configuratio nsTable 1 A comparison of the two different SOFC cell configurations2AdvantageDisadvantageEase of manufacturingEdge current collectionTubularNo need for gas-tight cell sealingLow-power densityLess thermal quip due to thermal expansion mismatchHigh materials costLower fabrication costHigh temperature gas-tight sealingPlanarEase in flow arrangementHigh assembly effort and costHigher power densityStricter requirement on thermal expansion matchAn SOFC stack consist of many unit cells, which are connected by interconnects. Figure 312 illustrates image of planar SOFC stack.1.1.3.1 CathodeThe typical material for the cathode is strontium-doped lanthanum manganite (La1-xSrxMnO3, x=0.10-0.15), because of its swell electrochemical activity for oxygen reduction, high electronic conductivity, good stability2, 4.Other materials, like platinum and other noble metals have also been considered as candidates of the SOFC cathode due to the highly oxidising environment. However, considering the high cost of platinum, it is not best choice to use this metal as the cathode.1.1.3.2 AnodeThough as for the cathode, precious metals like platinum can be used for the SOFC anode, the most widely used material is a nickel-zirconium oxide cermet, i.e. a mixture of nickel and yttria-stabilised zirconia (YSZ) skeleton2. About 20-40 porosity in the anode structure is good for mass expatriation of reactant and product gases1, 2. Nickel plays the role as the electrocatalyst for anode reaction and also can conduct the electrons produced at the anode whilst the yttria-stabilised zirconia is used for conducting oxygen ions2.1.1.3.3 Electrolytethither are a number of materials that can be used for the SOFC electrolyte. Among them, yttria stabilised zirconia (YSZ), i.e. zirconia doped with around 8 mol yttria and gadolinia-doped ceria (GDC) is the most widely used materials suitable for the SOFC electrolyte. GDC has very good ionic conductivity, only when it also shows a high electronic conducti vity5. Compared with GDC, YSZ is stable in either reducing or oxidising environments and has a good conductivity to transmit ions, especially at sufficiently high temperature. But unlike GDC, YSZ shows little or no capability to conduct electrons. Each time two yttria ions (Y3+) replace two zirconia ions (Zr4+) in the zirconia crystal lattice, three oxide ions (O2-) replace four O2- ions, which make one O2- range become vacant, as shown in Figure 45.The vacancies are determined by the amount of yttria doped. So it seems superficially that the more yttria doped, the better the conductivity. But there is an velocity limit for the amount of doped yttria, which is shown in Figure 55. The peak conductivity appears at yttria concentration of 6% to 8 mol%.Very thick-skulled YSZ has a very low gas permeability, which does not allow the reactant gases to mix. However, since YSZ has a low ionic conductivity, in order to ensure the ohmic loss and match with other components, it has to be ma de close 20-50 m thick 1, 2.1.1.3.4 InterconnectsInterconnects are used to connect the neighbouring cells. Materials which act as interconnect must have properties of high electronic conductivity1. Ceramics are usually used for the interconnect since the operating temperature is around 1000. Mg-doped lanthanum chromite, LaCr1-xMgxO3 (x = 0.02-0.01) shows advantages because its electronic conductivity typically increases with temperature2. However, although noble metals have good electronic conductivity, their high price limits their becoming a candidate for the interconnect 2, 4.1.1.5 Electrochemical ConversionThe air is carried to the cathode and the oxygen reacts with electrons from the external circuit yielding oxide ions2, 4Cathode O2 + 2e- O2- (1)The electrolyte does not permit the oxygen pass through it, save the oxide ions migrate from the electrolyte to the anode. At the anode hydrogen or carbon monoxide reacts with oxygen ions to produce water or carbon dioxide2, 4Anode H2 +O2- H2O + 2e- (2)CO + O2- CO2 + 2e- (3)This releases electrons to move through the external circuit to the cathode, thus generating an electric current.So the overall cell reaction occurring is2, 4H2 + O2 H2O +Waste Heat + electric automobile Energy (4)CO + O2 CO2 +Waste Heat + Electric Energy (5)The electrochemical conversion is shown in Figure 613.1.2 Electrolyte Materials1.2.1 ZirconiaZirconia is a egg white ceramic, with the properties of high temperature, wear and corrosion resistance, high melting take down and low coefficient of thermal expansion. Historically, the application of zirconia has been in refractory and ceramic paints2. However, with the development of good technologies, due to its stabilised and excellent properties mentioned above, it can be used as electrical conductivity material in the solid oxide fuel cells, wear split and sensors.Zirconia can exist in three different crystal structures monoclinic, tetragonal and cubic. At room temperature, it na turally exists as the form of the monoclinic crystal clear structure. When the temperature reaches around 1100, the crystal form changes to tetragonal, and then to cubic at about 237014. Pure zirconia is never used because of its unstable properties, so many dopants are added to stabilise the high temperature forms and hence avoid the damaging tetragonal to monoclinic transformation, e.g. MgO, CaO, Ce2O3, and Y2O3. Of these, yttria is the most common dopant, yielding yttria stabilised zirconia (YSZ).1.2.2 Yttria Stabilised Zirconia (YSZ) and the marrow of Different Yttria ContentsYSZ is considered to be an important electrolyte material for solid oxide fuel cells. The proportion of yttria in YSZ is still under research, but is often around 8 mol%. This yields a cubic fluorite-structure YSZ, which displays good thermal stability, good ionic conductivity at high temperature and a thermal expansion compatibility with electrode materials15. However, it is mechanically light(a) as a result of the high fraction of vacancies present in the structure.Different amount of yttria in zirconia has different effect on the properties of YSZ, including ionic conductivity, toughness, fracture strength etc16. 8 mol% yttria stabilised zirconia (8YSZ) has a cubic structure with properties of high ionic conductivity, good chemical stability but its low mechanical strength, limits the fabrication17, 18. However, for 3-7 mol% Y2O3, both cubic and tetragonal phases exist in the microstructure. Table 219 lists comparison of phases for different yttria concentration in zirconia.Table 2 Phase variation for different concentration of yttria in zirconia19%Yphase2YSZTetragonal with some monoclinic3YSZPure tetragonal4.5YSZCubic and tetragonal6YSZ and highercubicIf the YSZ has a great volume fraction of metastable tetragonal phase, which will provide good mechanical properties (strength and toughness) to the ceramic16. For example, 3 mol% yttria stabilised zirconia (3YSZ) has an excellen t mechanical properties of high flexural strength and good fracture toughness. M. Ghatee et al.16 also demonstrated that 3YSZ shows higher electrical conductivity than 8YSZ at T550C. That is because the activation heartiness of electrical conductivity for 3YSZ is lower than 8YSZ at all temperatures. And the strength of the material is determined by grain size and flaw size16.1.2.3 Nanostructured ZirconiaNanostructured ceramics are expected the come particle size is less than 20nm20. And recently, nanotechnology have drawn much attention because of the good mechanical properties, i.e. increasing of hardness, strength, of the materials in nano-size. It is reported that the electrical conductivity of nanostructured YSZ is about 2-3 orders of the magnitude larger than that of microcrystalline YSZ15.Since nanostructured YSZ has many advantages, the development of nanocrystalline YSZ electrolyte grows rapidly. Y. subgenus Chen et al.15, has synthesised nanocrystalline YSZ electrolyte vi a the plasma spray technique.1.3 Characterisation of YSZ1.3.1 Ionic ConductivityConductivity is a measurement of whether charges transport well or not. Ionic conductivity is derived fromion mobility rate, which is determined by carrier concentration c and carrier mobility u, which is shown in Equation 1 5.(1) 5where is the charge number of the carrier,is Faradays constant.1.3.1.1 AC Impedance SpectroscopyElectrochemical ohmic resistance spectroscopy (EIS) is a widely used technique for differentiating different losses, i.e. anode activation losses, ohmic losses and cathode activation losses. Impedance, Z, a judgement of the capacity of a system to resist current flow relates to variation of time and frequency. It is given by the following Equation 25Z = (2) 5Where V(t) is time-dependent voltage = V0 cos()i(t) is time-dependent current = i0 cos()V0 and i0 are the amplitudes of voltage and currentis radial frequencyis phase shiftIt often uses sinusoidal voltage perturbation, V = V0co s(), dominating responded current, i = i0cos(), to measure impedance. So according to Equation 2, impedance Z is written by Equation 35Z = = Z0 (3)5Ionic conductivity is often investigated by impedance spectroscopy. Temperature and frequency are important factors which should be controlled accurately21. Measurements are often processed using platinum electrodes, in air. The YSZ electrolytes are coated with platinum paste on both sides. Two platinum wires which adhere to each side of the YSZ electrolyte were connected to the frequency response analyser. And the measurements are carried out under the temperature range of 200-1000C21, 22.1.3.1.2 4-Probe Method4-point investigation method is used to measure the electrical impedance of YSZ. The configuration of the 4-point investigating shown in Figure 723, is composed of four independent electrical terminals, the two probe (A and B) are used to provide current whilst the potential drop is measured by the inner terminals (C and D)23, 24 .Figure 7 Principle of 4-point probe technique23And the face concussion should be ensured when the measurement was made25. According to H. Kokabi23, before measurement, the following two assumptions must be processedThe area of measurement is uniformThe diameter of the contact point is far less than the distance between two probes.1.3.1.3 Sintered Density and Grain Size Effect on Ionic ConductivityAccording to X.J. Chen et al.21, ionic conductivity can be divided to two parts intragranular conductivity and intergranular conductivity. The former one is related to density, while the later one depends on the grain size and grain demarcation line. Intragranular conductivity increases with increasing density, and intergranular conductivity increases with the sintering temperature till 1350, then drop down21.It is reported that high densities and small grain sizes can cleanse the electrical and mechanical properties of YSZ26. In the case of the porosity, 10%, can has great reduction fo r conductivity because the pores hinder the conduction way between grains26. On the contrary, the fully dense YSZ has a maximum conductivity.Han et al.27 said that the grain boundary motion induces grain growth, which is driven by two processes grain boundary diffusion and grain boundary migration. They both make densification increase, but the latter one gives rapid grain growth22. So if dense sintering with little grain growth needs to be achieved, hindering grain boundary migration, whilst keeping grain boundary diffusion active, is a good method. The activation energy for grain boundary migration, which is the least energy to ensure migration occurring, is higher than that for grain boundary diffusion. So as D. Mland22 suggests, it is better keeping the sintering temperature to no more than 1300C, which means that grain boundary migration is inhibited, but grain boundary diffusion is active.